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Home All issues Online First (2025) Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot, Publication ahead of print Full HTML
Open Access
Publication ahead of print
Journal
Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot
DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2024032
Published online 14 February 2025

© The Authors, Published by EDP Sciences, 2025

Licence Creative CommonsThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Introduction

Ice hockey is played by over 1.5 million people worldwide, from youth leagues to elite competitions (IIHF, 2023). It holds substantial cultural and economic significance, particularly in Canada where it is the winter national sport. Ice hockey demands both physical fitness and sport-specific skills, making it a challenging sport (Burr et al., 2008). Like rugby and soccer, it features repeated bursts of high-intensity effort, lasting 30–80 seconds, followed by rest (Bishop et al., 2003; Montgomery, 1988). Players perform numerous accelerations and direction changes at high speeds (Buchheit et al., 2011), requiring anaerobic power (Wilson et al., 2010), aerobic endurance (Burr et al., 2008), muscular strength (Ransdell et Murray, 2011), and agility (Novák et al., 2019). These demands make reaching elite levels a long process. At the highest levels, players often show greater height, weight, and bone density than non-athletes (Allisse et al., 2017). Young athletes quickly enter a talent selection process, recognized for their natural predisposition (Till & Baker, 2020).

Adolescence is a crucial phase in ice hockey development (Roczniok et al., 2013; Sturges, 2018), marked by physical, social, and psychological changes (da Conceição Taborda-Simões, 2005). Athletes develop self-awareness and understand how their efforts affect performance (Sebastian et al., 2008; Smoll & Smith, 2003). It’s also when they commit more seriously to their sport (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014).

1.1 Musculoskeletal development

Ice hockey demands several physical attributes to perform effectively (Montgomery, 1988). From the onset of puberty, muscle strength and power develop predominantly through neural mechanisms and increased muscle hypertrophy, particularly in males (Van Praagh, 2007). Sexual dimorphism is largely, but not only, enhanced by the surge of testosterone in adolescent males, which can be 10 to 20 times higher than in childhood (Mero, 1988). Isometric and dynamic strengths are comparable in young males and females up to the ages of 10–12 years (Bäckman & Oberg, 2020). During adolescence, both sexes experience increases in concentric and eccentric strength. Female typically go through puberty between 11 and 13 years of age, while males experience it between 14 and 16 years, sometimes extending into their early twenties. (Bar-Or & Goldberg, 1989; Papaiakovou et al., 2009). Research by Toong et al. (2018) indicates that male and female ice hockey players are stronger than their non-athletic peers. “Ice hockey requires both speed and power because of the frequent stops and changes in direction (Buchheit et al., 2011). Measurements of players’ vertical jumps consistently improve between the ages of 13 and 17, indicating a development in power (Cordingley et al., 2019; Leiter et al., 2016).

1.2 Aerobic and anerobic pathways

Ice hockey requires several physical attributes for optimal performance (Montgomery, 1988). During puberty, muscle strength and power develop mainly through neural mechanisms and hypertrophy, particularly in males (Van Praagh, 2007). Testosterone surges in adolescent males can be 10–20 times higher than in childhood, enhancing sexual dimorphism (Mero, 1988). Before puberty, males and females show similar isometric and dynamic strength (Bäckman & Oberg, 2020). Both sexes gain concentric and eccentric strength during adolescence, with females entering puberty between 11–13 years and males between 14–16 years (Bar-Or & Goldberg, 1989; Papaiakovou et al., 2009). Research by Toong et al. (2018) shows that male and female hockey players are stronger than non-athletic peers. Frequent stops and direction changes in hockey demand both speed and power (Buchheit et al., 2011). Vertical jump measurements improve between ages 13 and 17, reflecting power development (Cordingley et al., 2019; Leiter et al., 2016).

1.3 Speed and agility

Sprint speed is shown to increase between the ages of 6, 12, and 20 years (Falize, 1984). Papaiakovou et al. (2009) further demonstrate that biological age, chronological age, and biological sex—mediated by testosterone and estrogen—influence improvements in running speed between the ages of 8 and 18 years. Notably, differences between males and females become apparent around 15 years of age. This divergence is largely due to males experiencing a greater increase in power and more significant growth in their lower limbs, which enhances leverage during running (Oliver et al., 2013). The progression of skating speed over a full season typically shows an increase early in the season, with levels maintaining during the off-season (Allisse et al., 2021). However, an improvement in off-season sprint speed strongly correlates with better skating speed in the subsequent competitive season (Haukali & Tjelta, 2016), suggesting that players enhance their take-off power and speed-generating abilities over the summer but require time on ice to translate these gains into enhanced skating performance. These findings underscore the importance of technical advancements in skating during adolescence and their impact on skating efficiency. According to Allisse et al. (2017), skating performance improvements are seen during the season when players are actively training on ice almost daily; no improvement—and potentially slight regression—is observed in the off-season. However, this study focused only on 13-year-old players and did not measure pubertal status or include female players. It is also noted that players’ on-ice agility may slightly decline during the puberty spurt, primarily due to a stagnation in coordination stemming from poorer postural control during this period (Krajňák, 2020).

1.4 Psychological assets

Player development goes beyond physiological aspects, with psychological factors playing key roles (Dohme et al., 2019). Perceived competence is crucial, as positive self-perceptions encourage long-term engagement in sports (Rottensteiner et al., 2015). During adolescence, perceptions evolve, with perceived motor competence showing a weak to moderate correlation with actual competence (Estevan et al., 2021). Perceived sports competence is shaped by young athletes’ interpretations of their abilities, especially through comparisons or feedback from coaches and parents (Shell et al., 2017). Although few studies link perceived and actual skills, Forsman et al. (2016) found significant correlations between perceived competence and speed/agility among 1321 youth soccer players. However, no studies have yet explored these relationships in ice hockey or how such perceptions change over time.

1.5 Talent identification in ice hockey

Few studies have examined the relationships between body size, physical condition, physical maturity, and player selection. For instance, in female ice hockey, Douglas (2015) and Martini et al. (2022) found that taller athletes with greater power, higher aerobic capacity, and better recovery from exercise had a higher likelihood of being selected for elite teams. During adolescence, physically mature players are more likely to be selected for teams and maintain long-term involvement in organized team sports such as ice hockey (Baxter-Jones et al., 2020). Similarly, at the varsity level, physically mature elite female players also possess an advantage (Geithner et al., 2018). A recent longitudinal study in Sweden investigated the role of physical maturity in minor ice hockey, revealing that “early maturers” tend to be more successful at the junior level, whereas “late maturers” achieve greater success as adults (Niklasson et al., 2024). Physical maturity also seems to play a role among junior players, especially regarding fitness of junior men’s ice hockey. In this regard, Daigle (2021) found correlations between forward and backward skate speeds with the performance of forwards and defensemen, respectively. Additional studies indicate that the fatigue index and broad jumps relate to performance metrics such as ice time or point differential. For elite adolescent players, Lemoyne et al. (2022) demonstrated the discriminant validity of various physical and psychological factors in selecting female players, though not for male players. These findings align with a scoping review by Huard Pelletier et al. (2021), which emphasizes the importance of using physical fitness tests that accurately represent the tasks of an ice hockey player while ensuring their validity.

The anthropometric and physiological profiles of ice hockey players are well documented in adulthood and at certain developmental stages. However, to our knowledge, very few publications have longitudinally assessed multiple physiological and anthropometric parameters. It remains challenging to compare the evolution of these parameters among physically mature and less mature players, especially at the elite level, where athletes begin to specialize in their sports discipline. In addition, it is unclear how these athletes’ perceptions of their athletic competence change during this period and whether it correlates with morphological and physiological variables. Understanding these relationships could help tailor coaching for elite players and promote their psychological well-being. Lastly, can these physiological, anthropometric, and psychological variables serve as effective talent identification (or talent development) tools? Enhancing our understanding in this area could potentially allow stakeholders in competitive or elite ice hockey, such as coaches, scouts, and strength and conditioning coaches, to better support players and optimize their development, addressing both the physical demands of the sport and individual growth.

1.6 Purpose of the study

This study has two primary objectives. First, it aims to shed light on changes in anthropometric, physiological, and psychological traits among two groups of highly trained adolescents who evolve in competitive hockey over the course of a year. Second, it aims to determine whether these parameters evolve similarly based on factors such as pubertal development and selection for a provincial team competing in a national competition.

In line with these objectives, this study tests four hypotheses:

H1: More mature players are expected to perform better in all fitness and on-ice tests and to have a larger and taller build than less mature players.

H2: Considering that participants are of the same age and compete in competitive leagues against comparable players, their perceived competence should remain stable during the selection process. H3: Since all participants play on elite teams and possess a high level of athleticism, their perceived competence is anticipated not to vary according to their physical maturity or selection status. H4: Players who are selected to a provincial team are expected to exhibit better results in both on-ice and off-ice tests compared to those who are not selected.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Participants

Data collection occurred during the selection process for two provincial hockey teams preparing for a national competition. All interactions with the athletes were approved by the ethics board of the researchers’ institution (CER-21-278-07.09). Participants were allowed to consent to or decline participation in the project without affecting their chances of being selected for the final team. The initial contact with the athletes occurred during the first evaluation camp of the selection process, where players were informed about the project and signed consent forms. Following the rules and regulations of the country and province in which the study was designed, only written consent from players was obtained. Article 21 of the Civil Code of Quebec stipulates that “Consent to research that could interfere with the integrity of a minor may be given by the person having parental authority or the tutor. A minor 14 years of age or over, however, may give consent alone if, in the opinion of the competent research ethics committee, the research involves only minimal risk, and the circumstances justify it”. The study mainly included first-year U18 (under 18) male ice hockey players, a year from being drafted into the junior major, and first-year Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel (CEGEP) female players, a year from being drafted into university hockey. Notably, goaltenders were excluded from this study due to their distinct on-ice testing and performance criteria, which significantly differ from other players. All fitness tests (on and off the ice) and anthropometric measurements were supervised by the research team and conducted by qualified staff. These activities were integrated into the selection camps and reflected actual practices in the field.

2.2 Procedures and measures

On the first day, players underwent on-ice and physical fitness tests, followed by two days of workshops focusing on training, nutrition, and sport psychology, along with meetings with the coaching staff. As illustrated in Figure 1, additional testing sessions were conducted at various stages of the selection process, which differed slightly between male and female participants.

The off-ice tests used in this study are commonly employed to assess the physical fitness of athletes. These include the vertical jump (Klavora, 2000), broad jump (Rahman, 2021), seated medicine ball throw (Beckham et al., 2019), grip strength (Xu et al., 2021), and the Pro-Agility test (Forster et al., 2022). Detailed information about these tests is provided in Table 1. Anthropometric measurements, such as height and weight, were taken using a Seca 700 stadiometer (Germany).

Three on-ice skills were evaluated: acceleration, speed, and agility. To assess speed and acceleration, we conducted the 44.8 m forward skating sprint test (Stastny et al., 2023). We utilized three pairs of Swift photocell timing systems positioned at the start line, the 6 m mark, and the finish line. In the sprint test, athletes start with one foot behind the starting line and sprint at their discretion when the Swift gate turns green and emits a beep. Then, they had to skate straight toward the 6 m and 44 m gates as quickly as possible. This test is repeated twice with a three-minute rest interval between trials, and the best times for acceleration (0–6 m) and speed (44 m) are recorded.

Agility was tested using a protocol from a previous study (Lemoyne et al., 2022), which evaluates a broad range of ice hockey maneuvers. The agility circuit, with an acceptable test-retest reliability of 0.67, involves six cones arranged in a rectangle. Three pairs of cones are spaced 7 m apart vertically and 9 m horizontally. The test comprises three stages, requiring athletes to change directions, execute tight turns, and skate both backwards and forwards. Athletes perform two circuit trials, and the best result is retained. A detailed depiction of the test setup is shown in Figure 2.

Physical maturity was assessed with the Pubertal Development Scale (PDS) (Petersen et al., 1988), which is reliable (alpha coefficients: 0.68–0.83) and highly valid for assessing puberty without intrusive physical examinations. The PDS approximates Tanner’s staging (Tanner, 1962) and measures secondary body development in males and females. Participants answered questions about specific pubertal markers: breast growth (females only), facial hair growth (males only), and axillary hair growth (both sexes), rated on a 4-point scale from 1 (no development) to 4 (development completed). Additionally, females reported the age of menarche, rated as 1 (has not occurred) or 4 (has occurred).

Perceived ice hockey competence was evaluated using the Self-Perceived Ice Hockey Competence Scale (Pelletier et Lemoyne, 2023), a 22-item validated scale measuring six aspects of hockey skills: skating (e.g., “I am a fast skater ”), strength and power (e.g., “I am physically strong ”), offensive abilities, decision-making without the puck, resilience (e.g., “I stay confident even if my playing time is diminished ”), and coachability (e.g., “I see the coach’s comments as an opportunity to improve ”). This scale demonstrated good internal consistency (McDonald’s omegas ranging from 0.74 to 0.84) and satisfactory temporal stability (intraclass correlation coefficient all > 0.87), making it a robust tool for representing ice hockey competence.

thumbnail Fig. 1

Male and female selection process.
Table 1

Off-ice fitness test explained.

thumbnail Fig. 2

Skating agility test execution.

2.3 Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were computed for each variable at each time point. We assessed assumptions of normality (skewness and kurtosis) for each variable and found no violations of the normality assumption. We used linear mixed-effects models (LMM) to analyze the longitudinal data. Each physical performance variable was analyzed separately as the dependent variable in the models. The main independent variables were time (as a repeated measure), pubertal status, and selection status. We included random intercepts to consider individual differences among the athletes (Barr et al., 2013). The time variable was considered as a fixed effect to evaluate its impact on each outcome. We chose linear mixed-effects models because they can handle unbalanced data and account for the hierarchical structure of the data, where repeated measures (time points) are nested within individuals (Baayen et al., 2008). LMMs allow for the inclusion of both fixed and random effects, providing a flexible framework for analyzing longitudinal data while controlling for individual differences in baseline performance levels.

The models were fitted using the restricted maximum likelihood (REML) estimation method, which is particularly well-suited for small sample sizes and for controlling the variance components associated with random effects (Fitzmaurice et al., 2011). Interaction terms between time, pubertal status, and selection status were included in the models to explore whether the effects of time on physical performance varied by pubertal status or selection status. The results of the LMM analyses were interpreted using standard F-tests and p-values, with alpha set at .05. All the previously stated analyses were conducted with IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29). A power analysis conducted with G*Power analysis software (Faul et al., 2007) indicated that a total sample size of at least 28 participants was required for the analyses regarding perceived skating ability.

3 Results

3.1 Descriptive

The total sample across the three selection camps comprised 78 athletes, with 51% males (mean age = 13.81, SD = 0.41) and 49% females (mean age = 14.97, SD = 0.92). No athlete declined to take part in the study, since it was part of the development camp. Scores on the Pubertal Development Scale differed significantly between biological sexes, with females showing higher developmental scores (Male = 2.47, Female = 3.19, p = .013). During the selection process, nine athletes were added, four withdrew due to injuries, and the coaching staff cut five others. This resulted in a sample size that remained relatively stable, with less than a 10% variation. Table 2 outlines the number of athletes present at each camp throughout the process, and Table 3 provides descriptive statistics for all variables under study.

Table 2

Number of athletes present at each stage of the selection process.

Table 3

Descriptive statistics for variables under study.

Table 4

Progression of office tests over time according to PDS scores and selection

Table 5

Progression of on-ice tests over time according to PDS scores and selection.

Table 6

Progression of perceived ice hockey competence over time according to PDS scores and selection.

3.2 Off-ice tests

3.2.1 Anthropometry

Height increased during the selection process in the male F (2, 49.11) = 205.67, p < 0.001, and female F (2, 62.01) = 7.94, p < 0.001, samples, as shown in Table 4. Males with higher PDS scores were taller than those with low scores F (4, 28.05) = 7.57, p < 0.05. In the female sample, a significant interaction is found between time, PDS score and selection status, as less mature selected players grew more F (2, 62.01) = 8.92, p < 0.001. Players’ weights also increased during the selection process in the male sample F (2, 49.29) = 75.36, p < 0.001, but not in the female sample F (2, 62.07) = 0.93, p > 0.05.

3.2.2 Strength and power

Vertical jump results did not improve during the selection process in the male sample F (2, 44.23) = 0.18, p > 0.05, but did in the female sample F (2, 62.20) = 6.57, p < 0.05. In the female sample, a significant interaction is found between time, PDS score and selection status, as less mature selected players jumped higher F (2, 62.28) = 3.35, p = 0.041.

Broad jump results improved during the selection process in the male F (2, 44.92) = 12.64, p < 0.001, and female F (2, 59.30) = 8.35, p < 0.001, samples. Selected female players had better broad jump results than their non-selected counterparts F (1, 31.01) = 6.14, p < 0.05.

Seated medicine ball throw power output improved during the selection process in the male sample F (2, 54.15) = 19.77, p <.001. In the male sample, players with higher PDS scores had better power output than those with lower scores F (2, 30.11) = 8.78, p < 0.001 and made more progress during the selection process F (4, 53.15) = 3.14, p < 0.05.

Grip strength improved during the selection process in the male F (2, 49.78) = 4.18, p < 0.05 and female samples F (2, 56.88) = 7.13, p < 0.05. Males with higher PDS scores were stronger than those with lower PDS scores F (2, 28.31) = 5.25, p < 0.05. Males with higher PDS scores made more progress during the selection process F (4, 49.80) = 3.06, p < 0.05.

Pro-agility times improved during the selection process in the male F (2, 51.57) = 4.91, p < 0.05 and female samples F (2, 60.53) = 5.19, p < 0.05, but no other significant effects were found.

3.3 On-ice tests

On-ice acceleration times improved in the male F (1, 29.40) = 8.34, p < 0.05 and female F (1, 31.08) = 105.39, p < 0.001 samples during the selection process, as shown in Table 5. No interactions were found in the male sample according to PDS scores or selection. Selected female players had better acceleration times than non-selected athletes F (1, 61.00) = 11.85, p < 0.001.

On-ice sprint time remained stable in the male sample F (1, 26.91) = 3.49, p > 0.05 and players with lower PDS scores had better sprint times F (2, 28.80) = 7.37, p < 0.05. Female players improved their on-ice sprint time F (1, 62.00) = 8.61, p < 0.05 and selected athletes had better sprint times than non-selected ones F (1, 62.00) = 12.44, p < 0.001.

On-ice agility times improved in the male sample F (1, 26.69) = 32.06, p < 0.001 but remained stable in the female one F (1, 62.00) = 0.22, p > 0.05. Males with lower PDS scores F (2, 26.73) = 5.40, p < 0.05 and selected females F (1, 62.00) = 6.82, p < 0.05 had better agility times than their respective counterparts. Two interactions were found in the female sample, as selected athletes F (1, 62.00) = 4.05, p < 0.05 and players with higher PDS scores F (1, 62.00) = 5.98, p < 0.05 improved more over time.

3.4 Perceived competence

There was no significant difference in perceived skating ability over time in the male F (2, 60.00) = 1.19, p > 0.05 and female samples F (2, 47.45) = 0.20, p > 0.05, as shown in Table 6. However, in the male sample, we can see that the selected players saw their perceived skating abilities improve more than the non-selected one F (2, 60.00) = 6.04, p < 0.05.

Perceived strength and power remained stable during the selection process in the male F (2, 42.21) =0.92, p > 0.05 and female sample F (2, 62.07) = 0.93, p > 0.05. Player’s perceptions were not different according to PDS score or team selection for both samples.

Perceived offensive abilities remained stable during the selection process in the male F (2, 45.31) = 1.39, p < 0.05 and female sample F (2, 74.00) = 0.20, p < 0.05. The athletes’ perceptions were not different according to the PDS score or team selection in both samples.

Perceived tactical ability remained stable during the selection process in the male F (2, 48.61) = 0.70, p > 0.05 and female samples F (2, 48.61) = 0.07, p > 0.05. The male perceived tactical ability was not different according to PDS score or team selection, but selected females had better perceived tactical ability than not selected females F (1, 52.04) = 4.33, p < 0.05.

Perceived resilience improved during the selection process in the male F (2, 44.69) = 3.36, p < 0.05 and remained stable for the female samples F (2, 74.00) = 1.80, p > 0.05. For the male sample, the selected players improved their perceived resilience more than the non-selected players F (2, 43.10) = 3.97, p < 0.05. Male players with lower PDS scores showed a greater improvement in their perceived resilience than players with higher PDS scores F (3, 42.11) = 3.96, p < 0.05. No differences were found regarding the female sample’s PDS scores and team selection.

Perceived coachability remained stable during the selection process in the male F (2, 44.14) = 2.97, p > 0.05 and female samples F (2, 74.00) = 2.97, p > 0.05. No differences were found regarding the male sample’s PDS scores and team selection. For the female sample, the selected players had a better perception of coachability F (1, 74.00) = 8.55 p < 0.05 and greater improvement during the selection process F (1, 74.00) = 4.13 p < 0.05. The female players with lower PDS scores had a greater improvement of their perceived coachability during the selection process F (3, 74.00) = 4.04 p < 0.05.

4 Discussion

This study was designed to track the progression of various anthropometric, physiological, and psychological parameters among two cohorts of highly competitive ice hockey players over a critical year in their athletic development, culminating in participation in a national competition. It evaluated both male and female players at different stages of pubertal development over an extended period. The study employed a range of ice hockey-specific tests, including measures of perceived competence and on-ice performance, to gain insights into their ability to identify athletic talent. This is the first prospective study of this scale to provide a comprehensive examination of player development toward excellence in ice hockey, integrating physiological, anthropometric, and psychological variables.

4.1 Hypothesis 1

In the previous sections, we proposed four hypotheses relevant to this investigation. The first hypothesis was that more physically mature players exhibit a larger physique and perform better in on- and off-ice tests. It was confirmed, Male players further along in their pubertal development (e.g. higher PDS scores) were indeed taller and heavier, aligning with expectations. Furthermore, female players with lower PDS scores (e.g., in the second and third Tanner stages) exhibited more significant growth during the team selection process than those in the fourth stage. Considering that substantial growth is a hallmark of puberty, and that peak height velocity occurs at the second Tanner stage for males and between the second and third stages for females, our findings are consistent with the literature on this subject (Emmanuel et Bokor, 2023).

Regarding off-ice fitness tests, physical maturation is a factor to consider for males. Those more advanced in their stages of maturation perform better in strength and power upper-body tests, which is congruent with previous literature (Almeida-Neto et al., 2020). We can speculate that this is associated with the weight gain, and potentially muscle mass gain, that occurs in mid-puberty and is partially caused by the augmentation of free testosterone levels. Moreover, maturation status also impacts agility, as male players who were more advanced in their puberty had worse results but showed more improvements over time. Height increases during adolescence and impacts weight distribution during directional changes, a prominent part of agility tests. Still, as the hip extensors strengthen, more mature players can catch up, as Krajňák (2020) demonstrated in his study of adolescent hockey players. Another possible cause of this phenomenon may be the clumsiness of male players in the midst of their physical maturation process and, therefore, possibly in their peak height velocity (Bishop et al., 2021).

4.2 Hypothesis 2

The second hypothesis was that perceived competence should remain stable during the selection process. It was confirmed, as five of the six perceived ice hockey competence dimensions remained stable. Indeed, only perceived resilience improved during the selection process in the male sample. Despite the progression in most fitness test results, the stability of perceived competence across time underscores that perceived competence is a complex construct. These perceptions are not merely a reflection of the athlete’s performance but the result of the athlete’s interactions with his or her environment and the multiple comparisons (e.g. social, temporal, dimensional) that can be derived from them. (Marsh et al., 2014). It can be hypothesized that athletes’ personal performance standards adjust concurrently with their actual competence, leading them to perceive themselves similarly throughout this pivotal period (Roczniok et al., 2013; Sturges, 2018). The improvement in perceived resilience is somewhat surprising. It will be interesting to reassess it in the future to ensure that these results are reproducible. In the meantime, we can speculate that the increase in perceived resilience may stem from players being exposed to adversity (Bryan et al., 2019) in their first year of play in the competitive U18 AAA league.

4.3 Hypothesis 3

The third hypothesis was that perceived ice hockey competence dimensions should not change due to selection or advancing puberty in the two samples studied. It was partially confirmed, as only coachability (females) and resilience (males) differed according to selection and PDS score. In a supportive sports environment, it is expected that players—regardless of gender—will engage with peers of comparable skill levels. These interactions allow them to stay within their proximal zone of development, fostering a positive perception of their competence (Harter, 1978). Speed and skating proficiency are critical in competitive ice hockey (Bournival et al., 2023) and are often key factors in determining whether a player is ready to advance to the next level (Aalto et Raiha, 2013).

One aspect of short tournaments like the Canada Games is that they are very demanding, as the stakes are high, and players have little time to prepare. Perhaps the players selected felt more coachable because they really are, although this remains impossible to confirm given this variable’s lack of objective measurement in this study. If this is the case, it resonates with the study by Larkin and O’Connor (2017), which showed that decision-makers and coaches place great importance on coachability in team selection. As for perceived resilience in the men’s sample, we can stipulate that with the fierce competition starting early in their careers, the less physically advantaged players had to develop this quality more than the others (Hancock et al., 2013). However, it is impossible to be conclusive, as this study did not measure resilience.

4.4 Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis four was that selected players would exhibit better results in both on-ice and off-ice tests. It was rejected for the male sample but confirmed for the female sample, highlighting clear differences between the two populations. The identification, development, and ultimate selection of youth sports talent are complex processes that must be holistic in nature and take place with a long-term perspective (Till & Baker, 2020). Indeed, these processes involve players with different development trajectories, unique skill sets, and distinct puberty stages (Gulbin et al., 2013). In the women’s sample, the three on-ice tests could discriminate between selected and non-selected players. This underlines the importance of having a sport-specific test battery if the aim is to assemble a competitive team in a complex sport like ice hockey (Huard Pelletier et al., 2021).

It is important to note that because this sample consisted primarily of competitive athletes, it is challenging to distinguish players based on fitness or perceived competence at this level, especially for male players (Lemoyne et al., 2022). Ice hockey, as the national sport in the region where the data was collected, means the study sample represents only a small fraction of players in this age group. The smaller player pool in women’s ice hockey may be part of why fitness tests (especially on-ice) can help select players. However, with the sport’s increasing popularity among females and measures being taken to improve their talent development (Hockey Quebec, 2023), it’s possible that in the future, the situation will be much closer to that of males. Based on the findings of this study, it may be beneficial to incorporate tests that assess the players’ additional on-ice abilities (such as psycho-cognitive skills, puck handling, passing, and shooting accuracy) and to regularly measure the players’ height throughout their development, particularly during peak height velocity. This would help improve talent identification and development.

4.5 Theoretical and practical contributions

This article advances the understanding of the development of physical attributes and self-perceptions in youth competitive ice hockey. Cohort follow-ups using this kind of sample are unique in ice hockey, as it can be difficult to work closely with sports federations, and the team selection process is generally structured over shorter periods of time. The measurement of physiological and psychological performance parameters in male and female players at this level clearly confirms differences according to pubertal development at this important stage, providing researchers in this field with valuable data. The present study aligns with recent research demonstrating the clear advantages of more physically mature players in adolescent national team selections (Niklasson et al., 2024).

In this sense, it addresses concerns about talent identification processes, which often (and wrongly) allocate more resources to early maturing athletes, to the detriment of late maturers who may have greater long-term potential (Cumming et al., 2017). This study also provides a deeper understanding of the different components of perceived competence in ice hockey. It appears that the perceptions of competence remain consistent throughout the year-long selection process. With the importance of self-perceptions in healthy development through sport, it’s reassuring that the best young athletes seem to have positive, stable self-perceptions in their chosen sport.

This research can also benefit individuals involved in competitive ice hockey, such as strength and conditioning coaches, managers, and coaching staff. The results reveal that physical fitness tests are mostly ineffective at distinguishing between selected and non-selected players at a national level of competition, especially for male players. However, the results of this study should not downplay the undeniable long-term contribution of fitness to sporting success and a healthy, active lifestyle (Häkkinen et al., 2010).

4.6 Limitations

While this article adds value to the competitive ice hockey literature, it presents some limitations. It is important to note that the tests conducted were part of a selection camp, which included other activities such as intra-team matches and conferences. Thus, it was impossible to ensure that all athletes were at their best for every test. However, since all participants engaged in the same activities, this uniformity likely minimized significant impacts on results interpretation. Another clear limitation of this study, which we had no control over, is that the ages of the male and female players who participated in the selection process were not the same. This makes it impossible to compare the two samples.

Conducting another follow-up study with a group using more advanced off-ice fitness measurements, like the Wingate Anaerobic Capacity Test (Dotan et Bar-Or, 1983) or a repeated sprint ability test (Bishop et al., 2003), could be beneficial. These tests, well-validated in ice hockey contexts, can provide valuable insights. Additionally, incorporating technical skills assessments, such as puck handling, shooting, and pass reception, could uncover other gender or selection-related discrepancies, although currently, few validated tests measure these factors (Bournival et al., 2023).

Exploring psychological variables such as coping skills (Meyers et al., 2008) might also be valuable, as they often correlate with long-term achievement and sports participation (McNeil et al., 2023). Extending the follow-up duration to an additional 12 months would likely offer more insight into the characteristics of players advancing to the next level of play. The athletes involved in this study were male U18 AAA or female CEGEP (comparable to high school seniors in the US) ice hockey players, who were about a year or two from potentially being drafted by the NHL or colleges, respectively.

5 Conclusion

This study highlights the significance of monitoring the development of elite adolescent ice hockey players over an extended period to enhance the efficiency of talent development and selection processes. Furthermore, measuring pubertal development levels is crucial in this context, as they significantly impact athlete performance and progress. Additionally, the perception of competence among elite ice hockey players remains stable during the latter stages of their minor ice hockey careers. However, it would be beneficial to continue tracking the perceived competence of less successful players and to investigate the factors that motivate them to persist in sports participation.

Funding

This project was funded by the province of Quebec’s Ministère de l’Éducation et de l’Enseignement Supérieur under the Projet Synergique program. This project was possible due to the collaboration of Hockey Quebec and l’Institut National du Sport du Québec.

References

Cite this article as : Huard Pelletier V, Trudeau F, & Lemoyne J (2025) Development of physiological, anthropometric and psychological parameters in adolescent ice hockey players. Mov Sport Sci/Sci Mot, https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2024032

All Tables

Table 1

Off-ice fitness test explained.

In the text
Table 2

Number of athletes present at each stage of the selection process.

In the text
Table 3

Descriptive statistics for variables under study.

In the text
Table 4

Progression of office tests over time according to PDS scores and selection

In the text
Table 5

Progression of on-ice tests over time according to PDS scores and selection.

In the text
Table 6

Progression of perceived ice hockey competence over time according to PDS scores and selection.

In the text

All Figures

thumbnail Fig. 1

Male and female selection process.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 2

Skating agility test execution.
In the text

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